Natural Hazards and Earth System Science www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net 1561-8633 1684-9981 10 6 2010 10.5194/nhess-10-1359-2010 http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1359/2010/ http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1359/2010/nhess-10-1359-2010.html http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1359/2010/nhess-10-1359-2010.pdf 1359 1372 2010-06-25 Simulation of space-borne tsunami detection using GNSS-Reflectometry applied to tsunamis in the Indian Ocean R. Stosius rstosius@gfz-potsdam.de G. Beyerle A. Helm A. Hoechner J. Wickert Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany now at: Astrium Space Transportation, 88039 Friedrichshafen, Germany Within the German-Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System project GITEWS (Rudloff et al., 2009), a feasibility study on a future tsunami detection system from space has been carried out. The Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry (GNSS-R) is an innovative way of using reflected GNSS signals for remote sensing, e.g. sea surface altimetry. In contrast to conventional satellite radar altimetry, multiple height measurements within a wide field of view can be made simultaneously. With a dedicated Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation of satellites equipped with GNSS-R, densely spaced sea surface height measurements could be established to detect tsunamis. This simulation study compares the Walker and the meshed comb constellation with respect to their global reflection point distribution. The detection performance of various LEO constellation scenarios with GPS, GLONASS and Galileo as signal sources is investigated. The study concentrates on the detection performance for six historic tsunami events in the Indian Ocean generated by earthquakes of different magnitudes, as well as on different constellation types and orbit parameters. The GNSS-R carrier phase is compared with the PARIS or code altimetry approach. The study shows that Walker constellations have a much better reflection point distribution compared to the meshed comb constellation. Considering simulation assumptions and assuming technical feasibility it can be demonstrated that strong tsunamis with magnitudes (<i>M</i>) &ge;8.5 can be detected with certainty from any orbit altitude within 15–25 min by a 48/8 or 81/9 Walker constellation if tsunami waves of 20 cm or higher can be detected by space-borne GNSS-R. The carrier phase approach outperforms the PARIS altimetry approach especially at low orbit altitudes and for a low number of LEO satellites. Ablain, M., Dorandeu, J., Le~Traon, P.-Y., and Sladen, A.: The Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004, Observed by High Resolution Altimetry, in: 15 Years of Progress in Radar Altimetry Symposium, Venice, Italy, 2006. Anthes, R A., Bernhardt, R A., Chen, Y., Cucurull, L., Dymond, K F., Ector, D., Healy, S B., Ho, S.-P., Hunt, D C., Kuo, Y.-H., Liu, H., Manning, K., Mccormick, C., Meehan, T K., Randel, W J., Rocken, C., Schreiner, W S., Sokolovskiy, S V., Syndergaard, S., Thompson, D C., Trenberth, K E., Wee, T.-K., Yen, N L., and Zhang, Z.: The COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 Mission – Early Results, B. Am. Math. Soc., 89, 313-333, \doi10.1175/BAMS-89-3-313, 2008. Babeyko, A Y., Hoechner, A., and Sobolev, S V.: Source Modeling and Inversion with Real-Time GPS: a GITEWS Perspective for Indonesia, Nat. Hazard Earth Sys., in review, 2010. Behrens, J., Androsov, A., Babeyko, A. Y., Harig, S., Klaschka, F., and Mentrup, L.: A new multi-sensor approach to simulation assisted tsunami early warning, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 1085–1100, doi:10.5194/nhess-10-1085-2010, 2010. Beyerle, G.: Carrier Phase Wind-Up in GPS Reflectometry, GPS Solut., 13, 191–198, \doi10.1007/s10291-008-0112-1, 2009. Beyerle, G. and Hocke, K.: Observation and Simulation of Direct and Reflected GPS Signals in Radio Occultation Experiments, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1895–1898, 2001. Beyerle, G., Hocke, K., Wickert, J., Schmidt, T., Marquardt, C., and Reigber, C.: GPS Radio Occultations with CHAMP: A Radio Holographic Analysis of GPS Signal Propagation in the Troposphere and Surface Reflections, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4802–4815, \doi10.1029/2001JD001402, 2002. Brieß, K., Kornemann, G., and Wickert, J.: MicroGEM – Microsatellites for GNSS Earth Monitoring, Abschlussbericht Phase 0/A, Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam Deutsches GeoForschungsZentum GFZ und Technische Universität Berlin, 2009. Brune, S., Babeyko, A Y., and Sobolev, S V.: Are Tilt Measurements Useful in Detecting Tsunamigenic Submarine Landslides?, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 10, 1–12, \doi10.1029/2009GC002491, 2009. Brune, S., Babeyko, A. Y., Ladage, S., and Sobolev, S. V.: Landslide tsunami hazard in the Indonesian Sunda Arc, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 589–604, doi:10.5194/nhess-10-589-2010, 2010. Cardellach, E.: Sea Surface Determination Using GNSS Reflected Signals, Ph.D thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, 2001. Cardellach, E., Ruffini, G., Pino, D., Rius, A., Komjathy, A., and Garrison, J L.: MEditerranean Balloon EXperiment: Ocean Wind Speed Sensing from the Stratosphere, Using GPS Reflections, Remote Sens. Environ., 88, 351–362, 2003. Cardellach, E., Ao, C O., de la Torre Juárez, M., and Hajj, G A.: Carrier Phase Delay Altimetry with GPS-Reflection/Occultation Interferometry from Low Earth Orbiters, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 1–4, 2004. Cardellach, E., Fabra, F., Nogués-Correig, O., Oliveras, S., Ribó, S., Rius, A., and Belmonte-Rivas, M.: From Greenland to Antarctica: CSIC/IEEC Results on Sea-Ice, Dry-Snow, Soil-Moisture and Ocean GNSS Reflections, in: 2nd International Colloquium – Scientific and Fundamental Aspects of the GALILEO Programme, COSPAR Colloquium, Padua, Italy, 14–16~October 2009. Dow, J M., Neilan, R E., and Gendt, G.: The International GPS Service: Celebrating the 10th Anniversary and Looking to the Next Decade, Adv. Space Res., 36, 320–326, \doi10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.125, 2005. Falck, C., Ramatschi, M., Subarya, C., Bartsch, M., Merx, A., Hoeberechts, J., and Schmidt, G.: Near real-time GPS applications for tsunami early warning systems, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 181–189, doi:10.5194/nhess-10-181-2010, 2010. Garrison, J L. and Katzberg, S J.: The Application of Reflected GPS Signals to Ocean Remote Sensing, Remote Sens. Environ., 73, 175–187, 2000. Garrison, J L., Katzberg, S J., and Howell III, C T.: Detection of Ocean Reflected GPS Signals: Theory and Experiment, in: Proceedings of the IEEE Southeastcon '97: Engineering the New Century, Blacksburg, VA, 12–14~April 1997, 290–294, \doi10.1109/SECON.1997.598694, 1997. Garrison, J L., Katzberg, S J., and Hill, M I.: Effect of Sea Roughness on Bistatically Scattered Range Coded Signals from the Global Positioning System, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 2257–2260, 1998. Garrison, J L., Komjathy, A., Zavorotny, V U., and Katzberg, S J.: Wind Speed Measurement Using Forward Scattered GPS Signals, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 40, 50–65, 2002. Germain, O. and Ruffini, G.: A Revisit to the \mboxGNSS-R Code Range Precision, in: Proceedings of the \mboxGNSS-R'06 Workshop, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 14–15 June 2006. Gleason, S., Hodgart, S., Sun, Y., Gommenginger, C., Mackin, S., Adjrad, M., and Unwin, M.: Detection and Processing of Bistatically Reflected GPS Signals from Low Earth Orbit for the Purpose of Ocean Remote Sensing, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 43, 1229–1241, 2005. Gorbunov, M.: Ionospheric Correction and Statistical Optimization of Radio Occultation Data, Radio Sci., 37(5), 1084, doi:10.1029/2000RS002370, 2002. Hajj, G A., Ao, C O., Iijima, B A., Kuang, D., Kursinski, E R., Mannucci, A J., Meehan, T K., Romans, L J., de la Torre Juárez, M., and Yunck, T P.: CHAMP and SAC-C Atmospheric Occultation Results and Intercomparisons, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06109, doi:10.1029/2003JD003909, 2004. Hanka, W., Saul, J., Weber, B., Becker, J., and GITEWS team: Timely regional tsunami warning and rapid global earthquake monitoring, Orfeus Newsletter, 8(1), available at: http://www.orfeus-eu.org/Organization/Newsletter/vol8no1/onl_seiscomp/onl_seiscomp.htm (last access: June 2010), 2008. Heise, S., Wickert, J., Beyerle, G., Schmidt, T., and Reigber, C.: Global Monitoring of Tropospheric Water Vapor with GPS Radio Occultation Aboard CHAMP, Adv. Space Res., 37(12), 2222–2227, \doi10.1016/j.asr.2005.06.066, 2006. Helm, A., Stosius, R., Beyerle, G., Montenbruck, O., and Rothacher, M.: Status of GNSS Reflectometry Related Receiver Developments and Feasibility Studies within the German Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System, in: IGARSS 2007, Barcelona, Spain, 23–28 July, IEEE International, 5084–5087, \doi10.1109/IGARSS.2007.4424005, 2008. Hoechner, A., Babeyko, A Y., and Sobolev, S V.: Enhanced GPS Inversion Technique Applied to the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L08310, doi:10.1029/2007GL033133, 2008. Hoots, F R. and Roehrich, R L.: Model for Propagation of NORAD Element Sets, U.S. Air Force Aerospace Defense Command, Colorado Springs, CO, Spacetrack Report No 3, 91 pp., 1980. Imamura, F., Goto, C., Ogawa, Y., and Shuto, N.: IUGG/IOC Time Project – Numerical method of tsunami simulation with the leap-frog scheme, UNESCO, IOC Manuals and Guides No 35, 1997. ITIC (International Tsunami Information Centre): Tsunami Newsletter, XXXXVII(2), 28~pp., 2005. Jackson, B.: Performance of Meshed Comb Constellations for Minimizing Target Revisit Time, in: IEEE Aerospace Conference, Snowmass at Aspen, CO, USA, 21–28 March, 5, 59–69, \doi10.1109/AERO.1998.685792, 1998. Kanamori, H.: Seismological Aspects of the December 2004 Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake, Earthq. Spectra, 22, 1–12, 2006. Larson, W J. and Wertz, J R. (Eds.): Space Mission Analysis and Design, 2nd~edn., Space Technology Series, Microcosm, Inc. & Kluwer Academic Press, 1995. Lowe, S T., LaBrecque, J L., Zuffada, C., Romans, L J., Young, L E., and Hajj, G A.: First Spaceborne Observation of an Earth-reflected GPS Signal, Radio Sci., 37, 1007–1035, \doi10.1029/2000RS002539, 2002. Mart\'in-Neira, M.: A Passive Reflectometry and Interferometry System (PARIS): Application to Ocean Altimetry, Radio-Frequency Division, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, ESA J.-Eur. Space Agen., 17, 331–355, 1993. Mart\'in-Neira, M., Colmenarejo, P., Ruffini, G., and Serra, C.: Altimetry Precision of 1 cm over a Pond Using the Wide-Lane Carrier Phase of GPS Reflected Signals, Can. J. Remote Sens., 28, 394–403, 2002. Mart\'in-Neira, M., Buck, C., Gleason, S., Unwin, M., Caparrini, M., Farrés, E., Germain, O., Ruffini, G., and Soulat, F.: Tsunami Detection Using the PARIS Concept, in: Progress in Electromagnetics Research Symposium 2005, Hangzhou, China, 22–26~August 2005. Mart\'in-Neira, M., D'Addio, S., and Buck, C.: PARIS In-Orbit Demonstrator, in: PARIS IOD Meeting, CDTI, Madrid, Spain, 20 October 2008. Murty, T S. and Rafiq, M.: Research Note: A Tentative List of Tsunamis of the North Indian Ocean in the Marginal Seas, Nat. Hazards, 4, 81–83, 1991. National Geophysical Data Center: NOAA/WDC Historical Tsunami Database at NGDC, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), available at: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_db.shtml (last access: 28~November 2009), 2009. NAVSTAR: Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Signal Specification, 2nd edn., Tech. rep., 1995. NOAA/IOC/ITIC/LDG: Tsunami – The Great Waves, available at: http://www.erh.noaa.gov/er/akq/tsunami_brochure.pdf (last access: 3~May 2008), 2002. Nogués-Correig, O., Cardellach~Gali, E., Sanz~Campderros, J., and Rius, A.: A GPS-Reflections Receiver that Computes Doppler/Delay Maps in Real-Time, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 45, 156–174, \doi10.1109/TGRS.2006.882257, 2007. Pavelyev, A G., Volkov, A V., Zakharov, A I., Krutikh, S A., and Kucherjavenkov, A I.: Bistatic Radar as a Tool for Earth Investigation Using Small Satellites, Acta Astronaut., 39, 721-730, 1996. Rius, A., Aparicio, J M., Cardellach, E., Mart\'in-Neira, M., and Chapron, B.: Sea Surface State Measured Using GPS Reflected Signals, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2122–2125, \doi10.1029/2002GL015524, 2002. Rudloff, A., Lauterjung, J., Münch, U., and Tinti, S.: Preface "The GITEWS Project (German-Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System)", Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 1381–1382, doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1381-2009, 2009. Ruffini, G., Soulat, F., Capparrini, M., and Germain, O.: The \mboxGNSS-R Eddy Experiment I: Altimetry from Low Altitude Aircraft, in: Proceeding from the 2003 Workshop on Oceanography with GNSS Reflections, Barcelona, Spain, 2004. Sobolev, S V., Babeyko, A Y., Wang, R., Hoechner, A., Galas, R., Rothacher, M., Sein, D V., Schröter, J., Lauterjung, J., and C., S.: Tsunami Early Warning Using GPS-Shield Arrays, J. Geophys. Res., 112, 1–18, \doi10.1029/2006JB004640, 2007. Soulat, F., Germain, O., Ruffini, G., Farrés, E., Sephton, T., Raper, I., and Kemble, S.: STERNA – A Feasability Study of PARIS Tsunami Detection – Final Report, Starlab, Barcelona, 2005. Stein, S. and Okal, E A.: Speed and Size of the Sumatra Earthquake, Nature, 434, 581–582, 2005. Stosius, R., Beyerle, G., Hoechner, A., Wickert, J., and Lauterjung, J.: The Impact of GLONASS and Galileo on Tsunami Detection from Space Using \mboxGNSS-Reflectometry, Adv. Space Res., submitted, 2010. Syndergaard, S.: On the Ionosphere Calibration in GPS Radio Occultation Measurements, Radio Sci., 35, 865–884, 2000. Treuhaft, R N., Lowe, S T., Zuffada, C., and Chao, Y.: 2-cm GPS Altimetry over Crater Lake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 4343–4346, 2001. Valenzuela, G R.: Theories for the Interaction of Electromagnetic and Ocean Waves – A Review, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 13, 61–85, 1978. Voronovich, A G.: Wave Scattering from Rough Surfaces, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1994. Walker, J G.: Satellite Constellations, J. Brit. Inter. Soc., 37, 559–571, 1984. Wickert, J., Michalak, G., Schmidt, T., Beyerle, G., Cheng, C Z., Healy, S B., Heise, S., Huang, C Y., Jakowski, N., Köhler, W., Mayer, C., Offiler, D., Ozawa, E., Pavelyev, A G., Rothacher, M., Tapley, B., and Arras, C.: GPS Radio Occultation: Results from CHAMP, GRACE and FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC, Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci., 20, 35–50, \doi10.3319/TAO.2007.12.26.01(F3C), 2009. Wu, T., Wu, S C., Hajj, G A., Bertiger, W I., and Lichten, S M.: Effects of Antenna Orientation on GPS Carrier Phase, Manuscr. Geodaet., 18, 91–98, 1993.