NHESSNatural Hazards and Earth System ScienceNHESSNat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.1684-9981Copernicus GmbHGöttingen, Germany10.5194/nhess-15-805-2015Field survey report and satellite image interpretation of the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan in the PhilippinesMasE.mas@irides.tohoku.ac.jpBrickerJ.KureS.AdrianoB.YiC.SuppasriA.KoshimuraS.https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8352-0639International Research Institute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS),
Tohoku University, Miyagi, Sendai, 980-0845, JapanE. Mas (mas@irides.tohoku.ac.jp)10April201515480581616April201427May201414March201517March2015This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/This article is available from https://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/15/805/2015/nhess-15-805-2015.htmlThe full text article is available as a PDF file from https://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/15/805/2015/nhess-15-805-2015.pdf
Three weeks after the deadly Bohol earthquake of Mw
7.2, which claimed at least 222 victims, another disaster struck the
Philippines. This time, Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Typhoon Yolanda
in the Philippines, devastated the Eastern Visayas islands on
8 November 2013. Its classification as a super typhoon was based on its
maximum sustained 1 min surface wind speed of 315 kmh-1, which
is equivalent to a strong Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale.
This was one of the deadliest typhoon events in the Philippines' history,
after the 1897 and 1912 tropical cyclones. At least 6268 individuals have
been reported dead and 1061 people are missing. In addition, a wide area of
destruction was observed in the Eastern Visayas, on Samar and Leyte islands.
The International Research Institute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS) at Tohoku
University in Sendai, Japan, has deployed several teams for damage
recognition, relief support and collaboration with regard to this disaster
event. One of the teams, the hazard and damage evaluation team, visited the
affected areas in the Eastern Visayas in mid-January 2014. In this paper, we
summarize the rapid damage assessment from satellite imagery conducted days
after the event and report on the inundation measurements and the damage
surveyed in the field. Damage interpretation results by satellite images were
qualitatively confirmed for the Tacloban city area on Leyte Island, the most
populated city in the Eastern Visayas. During the survey, significant damage
was observed from wind and storm surges on poorly designed housing on the
east coast of Leyte Island. Damage, mainly from surface waves and winds, was
observed on the east coast of Samar Island.
Introduction
Typhoons are tropical cyclone systems with high-intensity wind speeds.
According to the intensity scale used by the Japan Meteorological Agency
(JMA), a tropical cyclone is designated as a typhoon when the sustained wind
speed exceeds 118 kmh-1, and a super typhoon has winds of at
least 190 kmh-1. Super Typhoon Haiyan traveled at
30–40 kmh-1 with a maximum 1 min sustained wind speed of
315 kmh-1, reaching Category 5 on the
Saffir–Simpson scale. Typhoon Haiyan hit the small nation of Palau causing
some damage, but its maximum intensity was felt by the Eastern Visayas of the
Philippines. Eight out of 17 regions were affected by the winds. The
most impacted areas were Samar and Leyte islands, including the highly
populated capital city of Tacloban. The last report, on 17 April 2014, included 6300
fatalities, 28 689 people injured and 1061 who are
still missing. A total of 3 424 593 families were affected in 44 provinces,
with 1 140 332 houses either entirely or partially collapsed
. In addition, the Tacloban port and airport were affected
by Super Typhoon Haiyan. On 11 November 2013, the president of the
Philippines declared a state of national calamity. As a reference, Haiyan was
the strongest cyclone since the year 2000, with 1 min sustained wind speed
over 300 kmh-1. Among Category 5 cyclones since 2000, only
Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh caused more casualties than Super
Typhoon Haiyan (Table ).
Cyclone Nargis is not considered in this table because it was of Category 4;
however the death toll was reported as being over 138 000 fatalities
. From the list of cyclones in Table it is
worth highlighting that, although Super Typhoon Haiyan remains the
strongest cyclone based on the peak 1 min sustained wind record since 2000,
in other cases the intensity scale of wind does not necessary correlate
directly to the number of fatalities. For instance, the 1970 Bhola Cyclone
with 205 kmh-1 wind speed and classified as Category 3 reported
fatalities up to 500 000 people . Conversely, Hurricane
Camille in 1969 was of Category 5 yet killed far fewer people: 259. Moreover,
Hurricane Katrina started as a Category 1 hurricane at its first landfall in
Florida, USA. After this, due to warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico it
increased to Category 5 and then decreased again to Category 3 at its second
landfall in Louisiana, USA . Such restructuring of wind
fields before landfall make it difficult to rely on storm surge or damage
prediction based only on offshore estimates of wind speed; however some
interesting efforts can be found in the literature, such as
.
List of tropical cyclones of Category 5 Saffir–Simpson scale with
fatalities recorded in the 20th century. P1SW: peak 1 min sustained wind
in km h-1; NAO: North Atlantic Ocean; EPO: eastern Pacific Ocean;
WNPO: west North Pacific Ocean; NIO: north Indian Ocean;
SWIO: southwest Indian Ocean; AR: Australian region; SPO: South Pacific
Ocean.
A rapid assessment of the event using satellite images for damage
interpretation was conducted immediately by the authors, and a post-event
survey of Super Typhoon Haiyan's impact on the Philippines was carried out by
the International Research Institute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS) team in
mid-January 2014. The results of these activities are presented in this
paper.
Track of Super Typhoon Haiyan through the
Philippines
Area of Responsibility (PAR) overlaid on the LandScan population
data. Almost 4 million families were affected across 44 provinces of
the Eastern Visayas.
Overview of Typhoon Haiyan
Super Typhoon Haiyan, known as Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines, formed in
an area of low pressure at low latitudes in the west Pacific Ocean near
Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands group in the Federated States of Micronesia.
It was 3 November 2013 when the system developed into a tropical depression
and later into a tropical storm, with the name Haiyan given at 00:00 UTC on
4 November. By 5 November, the intensity of the tropical storm had increased
rapidly to the typhoon category, and on 6 November the Joint Typhoon Warning
Center (JTWC) classified it as Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane
wind scale; later that day, it entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility
(PAR) . On 8 November, Super Typhoon Haiyan made
landfall in the Philippines at Guiuan, Eastern Samar, and continued its way
west-northwest across the Eastern Visayas (Fig. 1). The second landfall
occurred over Tolosa on Leyte Island at 07:00 LT. According to survivors
interviewed at Tacloban, north of Tolosa, 07:00 LT is also the time when the
surge began to inundate and washed away houses on the coast near the city.
A third landfall happened over Daanbantayan in Cebu at approximately 09:40 LT.
By the end of the day and into the next afternoon, the typhoon weakened
towards the West Philippine Sea, and, finally, it was reported to be outside
the PAR. Details of the event can be seen online in survivor videos, in
particular those from cyclone hunters such as the iCyclone group
. Here, we quote some of the observations by
of the event experienced by his team in the Tacloban city
downtown area: “Haiyan was a small, fast-moving, extremely violent cyclone
that made a direct hit on Tacloban City”. According to this chase report
Haiyan presented destructive winds starting at 06:45, with the highest winds
and heaviest rain occurring at approximately 07:25. Their estimations suggest
a storm surge of 20 to 30 ft (6 to 9 m), observed as a sudden rise
of the sea at 07:30, which reached its highest peak between approximately
08:00 and 08:15, with lightning and thunder occurring during this interval.
A storm surge inundation and destructive winds were observed from 06:45 to
08:45, a short-duration event compared with other tropical cyclones.
Nevertheless, Typhoon Haiyan was one of the strongest and deadliest typhoons
in Philippine history. As of 17 April 2014, from the last official
report, 6300 fatalities have been reported, with 28 689 persons injured and
1061 still missing due to the typhoon's aftermath
.
(a) Pre-event satellite image obtained from
a mosaic of Google Earth snapshots (imagery date: 23 February 2012).
(b) Post-event Pléiades/Astrium service satellite image. In
addition, a Digital Globe image in Google Earth was used for areas in the
northern part of the study area (imagery date: 13 November 2013).
Damage interpretation from satellite images
After disasters with wide areas of impact, information related to the extent
of damage and the areas in need of assistance and relief is often limited.
Satellite imagery can provide disaster information, including the extent and
level of damage in areas with limited accessibility, used to support
emergency response . Such efforts have been conducted
after earthquakes, tsunamis and hurricanes (e.g., Hurricane Katrina and the
Great Tohoku earthquake, tsunami and nuclear accident)
. This paper describes
IRIDeS' initial efforts using satellite imagery to map the damage in the
Tacloban area from Super Typhoon Haiyan. The damage assessment approach used
for this event was the manual visual interpretation method. Visual
interpretation is one of the most straightforward methods to assess damage in
a wide area, and it is the most accurate
when using
very high resolution imagery. Some limitations to this method are its use of
subjective interpretation, which can vary from user to user; that the
availability of satellite images of the impacted area depends on weather
conditions; and that it is time consuming. In addition, underestimations in
the interpretation of damage conditions due to storm surge inundation might
have occurred where the structure was not damaged on its roof due to a high
resistance to winds. In this study, it was confirmed later during field
survey that the main roofing type is corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets,
which posses low resistance to strong winds.
Data description
This study uses pre- and post-event satellite images to identify damage to
building roofs. Pre-event satellite imagery of Tacloban city taken on
23 February 2012 was readily accessible through Google Earth, while
post-event remote sensing data of the damaged area were obtained on
13 November 2013 through Digital Globe in Google Earth and through CNES
Pléiades/Astrium imagery from the ArcGIS map service. The two images are
shown in Fig. .
The results of the visual damage assessment using
pre- and
post-event satellite images and two classification criteria. (i)
High damage or destroyed in red and (ii) low damage or survived in
white.
Photos taken during the field survey at the
areas assessed
through visual inspection of satellite images. The damage conditions
and distribution confirm the interpretation that higher damages
existed to the north and south of the downtown area in Tacloban
city, the Philippines.
Stranded ships near the coast of Anibong to the
north of the
Tacloban downtown area. The storm surge was measured at
approximately 6 m, and extensive damage was confirmed.
Damage visual inspection and mapping
A visual comparison of the pre- and post-event images was conducted with
a house-by-house assessment of the damage due to Super Typhoon Haiyan.
A house or structured was considered damaged if it had a partially or
entirely damaged roof or, in extreme cases, if it had been washed or blown
away. The damage assessment was classified into only two categories to
accelerate interpretation, as rapid assessment of the event was necessary.
The categories are as follows:
High damage or destroyed. For this classification, the
interpretation focused on the roofs that had been reduced by more
than 50 % between pre- and post-event images. In addition,
when the structure had been washed or blown away, it was defined
as destroyed.
Low damage or survived. For this classification, the visual
interpretation focused on the structures with only small
variations in geometry or roof shape. In addition, when there was
no visual variation, if the structure was near an expected flooded
area, the level was classified as low damage or survived due to the
uncertainty on damage by the storm surge and resistance of roof to the strong
wind.
The results of this assessment are shown in Fig. . Significant
damage was interpreted on the coasts to the north and south of downtown
Tacloban. During our field survey, we visually confirmed the extensive damage
in these areas. The verification of our interpretation is, at this moment,
qualitative due to the difficulties experienced during the field survey in
gathering detailed information at a house-by-house resolution
(Fig. ). The extensive damage interpreted to the north
and south of the downtown was confirmed to be due to the high vulnerability
of the structures in these areas and to the presence of stranded ships, which
caused most of the damage near the Anibong area (Fig. ). In
addition, areas interpreted as having high damage in Fig. are
correlated to high storm surge inundations measured in the survey and shown
in Fig. .
Field survey of the areas affected by Super Typhoon HaiyanDispatch of IRIDeS survey team
In mid-January, the IRIDeS of Tohoku University deployed a second group to
coordinate field survey efforts in the affected areas in the Eastern Visayas.
The field survey team inspected the affected areas to determine the extent of
inundation and to comprehend the mechanisms of the structural and
building damage through inspection and measurement of inundation heights.
Observations and measurements of the storm surge inundation and the ongoing
recovery of Tacloban and the surrounding affected areas are reported in this
paper. The team was dispatched on 14 January 2014, and they surveyed the
areas shown in Fig. .
The colored lines show the daily survey routes
of the
team. Areas surveyed: Palo, Candahug (McArthur Park), Tacloban
airport, Magallanes, downtown Tacloban (green route), Anibong, Northern
Leyte, Western and Eastern Samar, Guiuan and Hernani.
Storm surge inundation (Leyte Island and western
Samar Island) and surface wave heights (eastern Samar Island) with respect to
the local mean sea level.
Objectives of the survey
Gather the available data to verify the rapid damage assessment
conducted using satellite image analysis, as explained in the
previous section.
Measure inundation heights from storm surges and surface waves
to verify the numerical models – the outputs of the numerical
simulation are presented in .
Establish a collaborative partnership to evaluate the impacts on
the mental health of the people affected by the disaster .
(a, b) Damage observed at the School of Health
Science at the University of the Philippines, Manila. (c)
Damage to the Provincial Health Office building in
Palo. (d) The South Korean army helping with the
restoration of a local hospital in Palo.
Overview of the survey
The team was divided at Tacloban city into two groups, the hazard and damage
evaluation group and the disaster medicine group. The first group focused on
the first two objectives of the mission, while the second group was in charge
of the third objective. Local counterparts joined both groups for support and
for future collaboration. The locations of the storm surge and wave
inundation measurements in the visited areas are shown in Fig. .
These measurements were conducted using portable laser rangefinders
calibrated to the sea level at the time of the survey. A supplement related
to this article with the table of measurements is available online. Extensive
damage to buildings from wind and surges was observed in the Tacloban city
coastal area. In particular, houses made of rafters with CGI sheets on the
roof were blown or washed away. Storm surge heights of up to 6 m were
measured near the shoreline. Moreover, survivors reported waves over the
surge, which could have been nearly 4 m high. Damage to housing was
also observed from ships that were carried by storm surge and storm waves to
inland areas. In downtown Tacloban, buildings are made of masonry or
reinforced concrete and suffered slight damage from wind and
ground floor
inundation; however, significant structural damage was not observed to most
of the buildings. In contrast, areas to the northwest and southeast of
downtown Tacloban were highly impacted due to the lightweight materials used
for construction and the non-engineered characteristic of the houses.
Conversely, Daniel Z. Romualdez (DZR) Airport at Tacloban was heavily
damaged by strong winds and surges from 4 to 6 m in height. The
airport was reopened for humanitarian aid 3 days after the disaster, and,
by the time of our field survey, it had reopened for domestic flights.
Survivors were interviewed during the field survey, and they reported having
resisted the surge by clinging to palm trees or staying on rooftops. Most of
the local residents did not evacuate rapidly because they overlooked storm
warnings as their previous experiences had not been as critical as Typhoon
Haiyan. In addition, to protect their assets and belongings, some of them
stayed at home instead of looking for high ground or refuge. The warning
information of Haiyan was issued by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical
and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) officially through a
weather advisory at 11:00 on 5 November and then upgraded to a severe-weather
bulletin on 6 November. This information was transfer to the National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) and from here to
national, regional and local offices in charge of convey population to
evacuation. The estimations of PAGASA were accurate and distributed 18 h
before the landfall in Guiuan. Still, fatalities were reported due to a
delayed evacuation.
(a, b) Damage to the walls and roof of
a gate to
the side of the runway. (c) Passengers arriving and
baggage claim belt out of service due to damage.
(a) Watermark in the inland downtown area,
where no structural damage was observed. (b) Inland downtown, damage
to doors due to flooding. (c, d) Extensive damage at the coastline
near downtown Tacloban.
Damage observed at the Anibong area, north of
downtown Tacloban. Destruction of wooden pile dwellings, erosion and local
instability of slopes.
Damage observed on Leyte Island
Leyte Island is in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is
located in the Eastern Visayas, and its capital city is Tacloban on the
eastern shore in the northwest of Leyte Gulf. The city of Tacloban has
suffered previous destruction and loss of life during the typhoon of 1897 and
the 1912 tropical storms. This time, Super Typhoon Haiyan struck the city of
more than 200 000 inhabitants, causing massive destruction and
death. The storm surge was measured to be between 4 and 6 m in the
downtown area; 6 m to the south; and up to 8 m to the north of
downtown Tacloban, in the Anibong area. Damage due to wind was present
throughout the survey area. The major mechanism of wind damage was the
ripping of the roofing materials off the frames of structures. The most
common roofing material is CGI sheets, which are popular because of their low
cost and ease of installation. They are attached to the roofing frame/rafters
(usually wooden, though sometimes metal) by nails. A common mechanism of
failure is the nails ripping through the CGI sheet. Sometimes the sheets and
the nails are different metals, which can accelerate corrosion of both the
nail and the sheet, further weakening the attachment. Once a structure's roof
had been destroyed, rain poured into the structure, ruining the architectural
elements, equipment, furniture and other items inside.
Municipality of Palo
Palo is a neighbor to Tacloban city, in the south of Leyte, the
Philippines. It was also heavily damaged, with several residents killed
during the typhoon. The survey team visited the School of Health
Science at the University of the Philippines, Manila, and found
extensive damage to its infrastructure. In addition, hospitals in
the area suffered from winds and the surge. Significant structural
damage was not observed other than to roofs; however, equipment,
medical supplies and windows were destroyed (Fig. ).
Damage at the northern part of Leyte Island.
(a)
Structure near the San Juanico Bridge. Inundation height was
measured at 5.9 m. (b, c) Coastal village of Old
Kauayan, where a small sea wall was overtopped and damaged. Surge flooding
of 4.4 m was measured here. (d) Sea wall damage at
Tagpuro. The run-up height was 6.9 m. (e) Barangay
Rosal area with a 5.0 m storm surge inundation and damage to
houses behind the 3.0 m sea wall.
Guiuan village, one of the areas most affected by
storm surge and superimposed storm waves. Sand erosion, vegetation damage and
destroyed concrete structures were observed.
Jagnaya Beach area, east of Salcedo village.
Extensive sand
erosion and deposition to inland was observed. In addition, coral
boulders were observed on the beach, which were possibly carried
inland by the waves.
Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport in Tacloban
DZR Airport is located on the edge of the eastern peninsula of the
Tacloban city area. This is a domestic airport with flights from
Manila and Cebu. It was effectively destroyed by winds and storm surge
inundations of, at most, 6 m in height. Walls, the roof and
equipment were damaged. It was reopened for emergency relief 3
days after the disaster and, later, for limited commercial flights. At
the time of the field survey, no electricity, water, walls or baggage
claim belts were available, as shown in Fig. .
Downtown Tacloban
Downtown Tacloban, as recognized by the survey team, comprises the
area located at the head of the second peninsula to the west of
DZR Airport. In downtown Tacloban, buildings were dirtied by the storm
surge and by rain falling in through roofs that had been blown
away. Some soft walls and windows were broken, and equipment,
furniture and architectural elements inside these buildings were
ruined. However, structural damage (other than to roofs) was not
severe (Fig. ). Conversely, the coastal areas of
Tacloban, some near downtown, were struck by wind, the storm surge and
surface waves on top of the surge. The complete collapse of
lightweight-material houses was observed. Residents have reconstructed
temporary private refuges with debris from the disaster.
Anibong area
The Anibong area is located immediately to the north of downtown Tacloban, in
the coastal area of Panalaron Bay. The Anibong and neighboring barangays
(villages) were intensely damaged by the storm surge, the winds and the
waves. Ships stranded here were the main cause of damage in the area
(Fig. ). Behind Anibong, a steep hill functioned as a barrier
to the surge; however, the hill remains unstable due to the erosion of its
slopes. Figure shows the damage to concrete frame structures;
a local landslide and soil erosion were deep enough to uncover house
foundations and tree roots. Pile dwellings, or palafittes, are the main type
of house found in this area. Due to these houses' lightweight building
materials and their wooden piles not being deep enough in the sandy soil,
this was one of the most vulnerable places in the Tacloban city area.
Northern areas of Leyte Island
Driving north from Tacloban city, Leyte Island is connected to Samar Island
by the San Juanico Bridge. We surveyed the area and found flooding heights up
to 5.9 m with damage to equipment and furniture inside concrete
structures. No significant structural damage was reported in these areas.
Farther to the north, along the San Juanico Strait, villages such as Old
Kauayan and Tagpuro were affected by surge inundations between 4 m
and 6 m high and by a measured run-up on the hill of Tagpuro of
6.9 m in height. In Old Kauayan, there was extensive damage to
coastal wooden houses and to the community school. A seawall of 3 m
was overtopped, and the flow generated scour at the wall's landward side. The
northern part of the area visited by the team was Barangay Rosal, where the
local mayor described the event and reported heights up to 5 m.
Significant damage was observed to pile dwellings located behind a 3 m high
seawall, which was overtopped by the storm surge, and roofs were ripped off
by the winds. The storm surge mainly affected the west side of the San
Juanico Strait, from the bridge up to the north (Fig. ).
Damage observed in Samar Island
Little damage from the storm surge was observed on the northern side of the
San Juanico Strait on western Samar Island. The team visited three locations
here, and only one small village next to the San Juanico Bridge presented
houses affected by the surge. However, wind did rip off many lightweight
roofs in the villages in the west of Samar Island. Most of these houses were already
reconstructed using the same corrugated galvanized iron blown off by the
wind. Most of the damage at Samar Island was observed on the east coast,
facing the Pacific Ocean. Here, debris and witness accounts indicate
inundation and run-up to 11 ma.s.l. (Fig. ). Many
coastal, concrete-based structures were entirely destroyed, with concrete
blocks from walls and foundations deposited up to 30 m inland by the
wave force. The coral-filled seawall in Hernani was breached at multiple
locations, and substantial scour existed on the beach. Coral boulders were
found on the beach at an elevation of 5 ma.s.l., possibly
transported there by Haiyan's waves (Fig. ). Most witnesses
reported a typical wave attack, with water approaching and then retreating
over a period of 10–20 s. However, in one low-lying area in Hernani –
recorded on video by a member of the NGO Plan Philippines – the wave run-up
approached for over 1 min before receding. Another low-lying area south of
Guiuan, located approximately 1 km from the coast, reported
long-duration flooding as waves ran overland to the area. In both cases,
a localized dip in topography prevented the water from receding quickly.
Conclusions
This paper reports on two response activities conducted by IRIDeS after the
impact of Super Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. First, a rapid damage
assessment was conducted through satellite visual images, and then the damage
was confirmed qualitatively through field survey observations. The results of
the interpretation and the findings of the field survey observations were
presented in this paper. The areas interpreted as highly damaged during the
satellite image inspection were confirmed as being areas with higher storm
surge inundations than those of low-damaged interpreted areas. In addition,
the high vulnerability of houses with lightweight roofing materials and the
presence of ships carried inland by the storm surge were the cause of
devastation in the areas interpreted as highly damaged. A qualitative spatial
correlation of inundation heights and damage interpretation can be observe
from Fig. and Fig. , while the interpreted
characteristics of heavy damage in the north district compared to the
downtown areas in Tacloban was confirmed during field survey and shown in
Fig. . Based on our field survey data, Super Typhoon
Haiyan affected the Eastern Visayas with storm surge heights from 4 to
8 m at Leyte Island, with an average inundation height of
approximately 6 m. Moreover, surface waves were predominant on the east side
of Samar Island, with a maximum height of 11 m observed at Guiuan.
More significant damage was observed in the coastal areas to the north and
south of Tacloban city compared to the downtown area. Several ships were
taken inland by the surge, causing damage to houses in the Anibong area.
Details of the survey point data are appended to this publication.
The Supplement related to this article is available online at doi:10.5194/nhess-15-805-2015-supplement.
Acknowledgements
We thank our counterparts in the Philippines for their support before and
during the field survey. This field survey was sponsored by the International
Research Institute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS) and the Discretional Budget
of Tohoku University's president. Edited by:
I. Didenkulova Reviewed by: H. M. Fritz and two anonymous
referees
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