NHESSNatural Hazards and Earth System SciencesNHESSNat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.1684-9981Copernicus PublicationsGöttingen, Germany10.5194/nhess-16-2485-2016A database on flash flood events in Campania, southern Italy, with an
evaluation of their spatial and temporal distributionVennariCarmelac.vennari@ba.irpi.cnr.ithttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-3704-3456PariseMarioSantangeloNicolettaSantoAntonioDepartment of Earth Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Largo
San Marcellino 10, Naples, ItalyItalian National Research Council, Research Institute for
Geo-hydrological Protection, Bari, ItalyDepartment of Hydraulic, Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering,
Applied Geology Division, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, ItalyCarmela Vennari (c.vennari@ba.irpi.cnr.it)29November201616122485250030December201519January20168November20169November2016This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/This article is available from https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/16/2485/2016/nhess-16-2485-2016.htmlThe full text article is available as a PDF file from https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/16/2485/2016/nhess-16-2485-2016.pdf
This study presents an historical database of flash flood events in the
Campania region of southern Italy. The study focuses on small catchments
characterized by intermittent flow, generally occurring during and after
heavy rainstorms, which can be hydrologically defined as small Mediterranean
catchments. As the outlet zones of these catchments (consisting mainly of
alluvial fans or fan deltas) are highly urbanized in Campania, the population
living in the delivery areas is exposed to high risk. Detailed scrutiny and
critical analysis of the existing literature, and of the data inventory
available, allowed us to build a robust database consisting of about 500
events from 1540 to 2015, which is continuously updated. Since this study is
the first step of a longer project to perform a hazard analysis, information
about time and site of occurrence is known for all events. As for the hazard
analysis envisaged, collecting information about past events could provide
information on future events, in terms of damage and also spatial and
temporal occurrence. After introducing the issue of flash floods in Italy we
then describe the geological and geomorphological settings of the study area.
The database is then presented, illustrating the methodology used in
collecting information and its general structure. The collected data are then
discussed and the statistical data analysis presented.
Introduction
Italy as a country is highly exposed to a variety of geological hazards,
whose occurrence reaps heavy casualties every year. In such a context,
geohydrological disasters, including all types of slope movements and
floods, are undoubtedly among the most frequent, and probably those causing
most impact on the built environment. Assessment of the risk related to
landslides and floods in Italy, covering the time span from 1850 to 2008,
shows that many regions are seriously affected by such geohydrological
disasters, with the largest landslide risk in Trentino Alto Adige and
Campania and the highest flood risk in Piedmont and Sicily (Salvati et al.,
2010). However, discriminating among these different processes, especially
in regard to past events, is a difficult task due to the lack of specific
terminology and/or to very generic descriptions of the phenomena and their
effects (Guzzetti and Tonelli, 2004). This may, as a direct consequence,
lead to great uncertainty in the reconstruction of the flood history of a
region.
A flash flood is a flood caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short
period of time. Such floods are localized hydrological phenomena, occurring
in small catchments of a few to a few hundred square kilometers, with
response times typically being a few hours or less (Borga et al., 2007).
Flash floods are typical of small Mediterranean catchments (SMCs) that have three
main features: limited water resources, dry summers, and high-intensity
rainfall events (Merheb et al., 2016). The Mediterranean climate is
associated with intense rainstorms; convective thunderstorms are frequently
less than 10–14 km in diameter and result in highly concentrated local
rainfall events varying considerably both spatially and temporally (Perrin
et al., 2009). In such contexts, after heavy rains, the main stream may
transport down-valley mixtures of water and sediment in varying proportions,
which play an important role in the behavior and hazard of the resulting
flows. Three types of flows can be differentiated on the basis of the
different amount of sediment and of the flow behavior: water flow,
hyperconcentrated flow, and debris flow (Pierson and Costa, 1987; Costa,
1988; Komar, 1988; Iverson and Vallance, 2001; Pierson, 2005). During a
flash flood the sediments captured by the stream and transported down valley
generally derive from the bed and banks of the torrent and may eventually
contribute to build alluvial fans or fan deltas. Another important aspect is
that in small catchments a substantial difference of magnitude exists
between low water periods, with a seasonal lack of surface water within
ephemeral streams, and flood events with the power to make substantial
changes to riverbed topography (Kirkham et al., 2000; Coe et al., 2003).
Flash floods are a frequent natural hazard in many parts of Europe (Montz
and Gruntfest, 2002; Gaume et al., 2009, 2014; Marchi et al., 2010),
including Italy. Due to the particular orography and climate of the country,
they occur in many different settings, from mountain valleys (Crosta and
Frattini, 2004; Tropeano and Turconi, 2004; Gaume et al., 2009) to coastal
and inland plains (Esposito et al., 2011; Santangelo et al., 2011; Porfido
et al., 2013), in volcanic areas (Alessio et al., 2013), and in semiarid
and/or karst environments (Parise, 2003; Cossu et al., 2007; Delle Rose and
Parise, 2010). Flash floods generally occur in ungauged watersheds where the
lack of information on precipitation and discharge is significant due to the
lack of spatially well-distributed rain or flow data. Hence they often
remain poorly documented phenomena (Gaume et al., 2009; Ruiz-Villanueva et
al., 2010) and, despite their widespread occurrence, they are often
described together with landslides and floods in alluvial plains, making it
no easy task to distinguish the various processes occurring from documents
and reports. This holds especially when examining events occurring at
various times in the past in which recorded damage is generally attributed
to landslides.
Whilst in the Italian Alps, due to their high frequency, flash floods in
small basins have been the subject of detailed studies for many decades
(Crosta and Frattini, 2004; Sosio et al., 2007; Carrara et al., 2008; Simoni
et al., 2011; Arattano et al., 2012, 2015; Marchi and Tecca, 2013; Berti and Simoni,
2014; Blahut et al., 2014; Tiranti et al., 2014), in the Apennines they have
typically been analyzed with less attention (Sorriso Valvo et al., 1998;
Zanchetta et al., 2004a; Santo et al., 2002, 2012, 2015; Garfì et al.,
2007; Cascini et al., 2008a; Santangelo et al., 2011, 2012; Alessio et al,
2013; Antronico et al., 2015a, b; Scorpio et al., 2016).
The study area of this paper is situated in Campania, in the Southern
Apennines of Italy, a region which in recent decades has been affected by
severe flash floods with serious damage and fatalities (Calcaterra et al.,
2000, 2003; Santo et al., 2002, 2012, 2015; Del Prete and Mele, 2006;
Santangelo et al., 2006, 2011, 2012; Chirico et al., 2012; Alessio et al.,
2013). The focus of the study consisted of small catchments with
intermittent flow, generally occurring during and after heavy rainstorms,
which can be hydrologically defined as SMCs. All these basins are smaller than 10 km2, are characterized by
low concentration times (from 30 min to several hours; Santo et al.,
2002; Santangelo et al., 2012; Scorpio et al., 2016), and are highly prone
to flash flood events. Aiming at collecting all the available information on
floods occurring in such catchments, we consulted and scrutinized a variety
of sources and scientific papers, with a view to building a reliable
catalogue of these events.
Location and geological setting of the study area. Key: (1) Mesozoic
carbonate massifs; (2) Cenozoic hilly terrigenous areas; (3) Quaternary
volcanic areas; (4) Quaternary intermountain catchments and coastal plains.
The broken line indicates the boundaries of Campania.
As the first step in the process of hazard evaluation, we compiled the
database with the following main aims: (i) to identify over the whole region
the areas most susceptible to flash floods and (ii) to discriminate
whenever possible, in the available literature, flash floods in small
catchments from floods in alluvial plains and from gravity processes, such
as rapid earth or debris flow (Del Prete et al., 1998; Crosta and Dal Negro,
2003; Guadagno et al., 2003, 2005; Revellino et al., 2004; Zanchetta et al.,
2004b; Di Crescenzo and Santo, 2005; Cascini et al., 2008b). Our database is
not aimed at a hydrological characterization of the study areas due to
lack of hydrological data, especially as concerns the historical events.
Nevertheless, given the lack of similar catalogues for the Southern
Apennines of Italy, it might be useful in different ways for land use and
civil protection planning. In detail, it may help in the selection of sites
where monitoring procedures and/or prevention and mitigation works need to
be adopted. In this perspective the main users of such data will be local
administrators and the civil protection agency.
Study area
The region of Campania in southern Italy extends from the Tyrrhenian Sea to
the Southern Apennine Chain, covering about 13 500 km2 (Fig. 1). The
orographic setting is characterized by the presence of a central mountain
ridge made up mainly of Mesozoic carbonates, elongated for more than 200 km
in a NW–SE direction, with maximum peaks reaching 2000 m a.s.l. (above sea level). On the
western side the chain is bounded by a deep (up to 2 km) coastal graben
originated by Plio-Quaternary extensional tectonics, which was filled by
marine/transitional sedimentary successions and is now occupied by wide
flat coastal plains (Ascione et al., 2008). During the late Quaternary
strong volcanic activity was registered in the coastal plain with the growth
of the Somma–Vesuvius and the Campi Flegrei volcanoes (Romano et al., 1994).
The landscape of the western portion of Campania is thus characterized by a
wide flat area with isolated volcanic reliefs and islands. On the eastern
side of the region the carbonate ridges transition to hilly landscapes of
lower elevation, made up mainly of Miocene and Pliocene flysch successions.
In this general orographic setting, SMCs are a
widespread geomorphic unit along the flanks of the main carbonate ridges, as
well as the slopes of the volcanoes, where they have higher longitudinal
gradients. In the remaining hilly part of the region, stream catchments
present lower mean longitudinal profiles, and wide alluvial plains linked to
perennial river systems prevail.
Event types collected while constructing the database.
Rainfall data associated to flash floods: (a) maximum
hourly rainfall (official data from CFDC); (b) maximum hourly
rainfall (data from the literature); (c) maximum daily cumulative
rainfall (data from SIMN).
The general climate is humid temperate with mean annual precipitation
ranging from 1000 to 2000 mm. In short, the main situations responsible for
abundant rains over the region are generally northwesterly or westerly
winds bringing eastward-moving cyclonic depressions. Due to the rugged
topography of the region, heavy convective precipitation often results in
flash floods, with concomitant widespread landslides.
Distribution of flash flood events in the different catchment size
classes: (1) < 3 km2; (2) > 3 and
< 10 km2; (3) > 10
and < 60 km2.
The areas most affected by flash floods are the Lattari Mountains (Esposito
et al., 2011), the Somma–Vesuvius area and the Island of Ischia (Santo et
al., 2012; Alessio et al., 2013), the Picentini Mountains (Chirico et al.,
2012; Santangelo et al., 2012; Santo et al., 2015), and the Matese,
Caserta,
and Maddalena mountain ridges (Santangelo et al., 2011, 2012; Scorpio et al.,
2016). Given that the outlet zones of these torrential catchments are often
highly urbanized, serious risk to population and
settlements exists.
MethodData collection
The main problem in searching for information about flash floods in Italy is
that they are usually grouped with landslides and floods. In most cases the
databases refer to landslides or floods or put different types of events
together (landslides, flash floods in small catchments, floods in alluvial
plains). As before stated, in Campania a regional-scale database on flash
floods is not available.
For this reason, first of all we consulted the most complete archive of
landslides and floods produced in Italy, the AVI project (an Italian acronym
for Aree Vulnerate in Italia, areas affected by landslides or floods
in Italy). It was commissioned by the Minister for Civil Protection to the
National Group for the Prevention of Hydrogeologic Hazards of the Italian
National Research Council (CNR) with a view to compile an inventory of
information on areas historically affected by landslides and floods in the
country (Guzzetti et al., 1994). We scrutinized the AVI archive to extract
information about flash floods in small basins in the region. Since the
archive is divided into landslides or floods, careful research was essential.
Following this scrutiny, we also consulted and critically analyzed the
existing literature related to flood events in Campania.
Temporal distribution of alluvial events in Campania. On the left
a histogram illustrates their distribution over the time.
Temporal accuracy distribution of the events collected in Campania.
The histogram shows the distribution in five classes of temporal accuracy:
low (L), medium-low (ML), medium (M), medium-high (MH), and high (H). The
histogram on the left shows the distribution of the accuracy classes in five
temporal classes.
Recurrence of alluvial events in the municipalities.
In order to discriminate flash floods from other hydrogeological events, we
first adopted a “geographical” approach. Based on the evidence that all
the recently occurring and well-documented flash flood events (i.e., with
accurate event description and availability of rainfall data; Alessio et
al., 2013; Chirico et al., 2012; Santangelo et al., 2011, 2012; Santo et
al., 2002, 2012, 2015; Scorpio et al., 2016) affected SMCs, we catalogued all the events recorded in the outlet zone of this
kind of hydrographic basin as “flash floods”.
According to the above approach we distinguished the following four event
types:
floods in alluvial plains
flash floods in SMCs
landslides
mixed and/or doubtful cases.
All the hydrogeological events that may be easily discriminated, based on
general description and geographic location, were included in the database.
For mixed and doubtful cases a second analysis was carried out, searching and
consulting additional and new sources of information, in the attempt to
classify them into one of the four types or to exclude them from the
database. Once all the events were grouped into different types, we ruled out
classes 1 and 3 for further study and focused on class 2, which represented
56 % of the collected data (Fig. 2). We thus obtained a database of about
500 flash floods occurring in small catchments in Campania (Table 1).
Unfortunately, information about damage and rainfall was not available in all
cases. That said, the available chronicles and historical descriptions
testify to sudden events, lasting just a few hours. Whenever possible, we
tried to link the documented events to hourly rainfall data obtained from the
Campania Weather Forecasting Center (CFDC) (Fig. 3a) and rainfall data from
the literature (Fig. 3b), obtaining a total record of 34 events. In all cases
hourly rainfall values were very close to or greater than 30 mm h-1, and the
daily rainfall obtained from the Italian Hydrologic and Oceanographic Service
(SIMN) (Fig. 3c) was generally close to or greater than 100 mm. These values
are generally associated with high-intensity storms (Santo et al., 2012,
2015) and in the context of small catchments like those under study,
characterized by very low concentration times (see Sect. 3.2), may be
responsible for flash flood occurrence.
Mean time period of occurrence of the events in the municipalities
that have recorded more than 10 events.
Geographical representation of the events, according to the
catchment class.
The repetitiveness of flash floods in the same area was also investigated. As
shown in Fig. 7, among the 86 municipalities hit, 16 recorded more than
10 events. Nine out of these 16 municipalities were located at the outlet
zone of coastal carbonate catchments (Sorrento Peninsula–Lattari ridge), whilst the others are in the piedmont areas of inland carbonate
massifs (Picentini and Matese mountains) or in the volcanic area of Mt.
Somma–Vesuvius. In all these cases the mean time period of occurrence of the
events is very low, ranging from 39 to 3 years, with a mean value of 15
(Fig. 8). If only the most damaging events are taken into account, the mean
time period of occurrence increases to 50 years.
N= ID event, date, municipality, location. CE means catchment
classes: (1) < 3 km2; (2) > 3
and < 10 km2; (3) > 10 and
< 60 km2. D means classes of damaged elements:
(1) agricultural land; (2) architectural structures; (3) businesses;
(4) private buildings; (5) roads; (6) underground utilities.
NDateMunicipalityLocationCEDVRNDateMunicipalityLocationCEDVR108/10/1540Amalfi115612/11/1817Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2221550CasamicciolaLa Pera quarry,1411571818Cava de' TirreniAmalfi coast12(Ervaniello)330/09/1581Cava de' Tirreni13581819Cava de' TirreniAmalfi coast12430/09/1581Salerno13591820Cava de' TirreniAmalfi coast12530/09/1581Vietri sul Mare23601821SalernoIrno catchment32601/10/1581Castiglione del Genovesi14, 3700–1000*86106/06/1822Sala ConsilinaMonteoliveto square,24, 310De Petrinis land701/10/1581Giffoni sei Casali24, 3700–1000*3; 86227/10/1822Corbara1801/10/1581Piedimonte Matese34, 540066308/11/1822SalernoRoad to Vietri1901/10/1581San Cipriano Picentino14, 3700–1000*86424/01/1823Amalfi131031/08/1588Atrani236524/01/1823Bracigliano13111626SalernoFusandola1216624/01/1823Cava de' Tirreni131206/1643CasamicciolaBagni square14116724/01/1823Vietri sul Mare231306/1643CasamicciolaPiazza La Rita14116808/10/1823CorbaraMain square111420/12/1683MaioriRegina Major catchment316903/10/1824MinoriLoc. Torre211515/10/1696MinoriRegina Minor catchment21; 2701825Cava de' TirreniAmalfi coast121626/09/1728Piedimonte MateseVallata34, 567118/06/1827Sala Consilina24, 561711/11/1773Cava de' TirreniPassiano14400*17211/07/1829Arienzo1561825/01/1736Vietri sul MareBonea catchment227319/10/1830Arienzo15, 161926/09/1736Vietri sul MareBonea catchment227416/07/1833Arienzo162011/1738Vietri sul MareBonea catchment227513/09/1834CetaraCetus catchment122103/11/1750SalernoIrno catchment337618/07/1835Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment122203/11/1750Vietri sul Mare237718/07/1835Conca dei MariniIrno and Bonea catchment22310/10/1751AmalfiCanneto catchment127818/07/1835SalernoIrno catchment32(now Grevone)2401/09/1753AmalfiLoc. Chiorito117927/09/1837SalernoIrno catchment322523/01/1757AmalfiCanneto catchment128027/09/1837Vietri sul MareBonea catchment22(now Grevone)2623/01/1757Vietri sul MareBonea catchment228127/10/1839Padula2562709/10/1757AmalfiCanneto catchment128201/06/1841Arienzo16(now Grevone)2825/05/1762CetaraCetus catchment138320/09/1841Piedimonte MateseLoc. Vallata34, 57*6; 92919/01/1764Salerno28420/09/1841San Potito S.14, 57*6; 93011/1770SalernoIrno catchment328507/11/1842SerinoLoc. S.Rocco, S.Lucia11663111/11/1773Cava de' Tirreni138626/10/1843CetaraCetus catchment123211/11/1773Cetara138726/10/1843MaioriRegina Major catchment323311/11/1773Pellezzano138826/10/1843SalernoIrno catchment323411/11/1773SalernoLoc. Coperchia1573; 18926/10/1843Vietri sul MareLoc. Molina213511/11/1773Tramonti139018/03/1845MaioriRegina Major catchment323611/11/1773Vietri sul Mare239118/03/1845Vietri sul MareBonea catchment223720/11/1778Alife2469201/10/1846AmalfiCanneto catchment(now Grevone)123820/11/1778Piedimonte MateseLoc.Vallata3499301/10/1846BaronissiIrno catchment123902/1780AtraniDragone catchment229401/10/1846CetaraCetus catchment124025/12/1796Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment129501/10/1846FiscianoCanneto, Regina Major, Bonea22and Irno catchments4125/12/1796SalernoIrno catchment329601/10/1846MaioriRegina Major catchment324225/12/1796Vietri sul MareBonea catchment.229701/10/1846PellezzanoIrno catchment124310/1803Piedimonte MateseLoc.Vallata369831/12/1847Amalfi124421/01/1805SolofraLoc. Caposolofra25, 4, 2, 3159913/09/1851Alife264522/01/1805SerinoRibottoli167610013/09/1851Piedimonte Matese364609/06/1806Sala ConsilinaDe Petrinisi street24, 5301010113/09/1851Sant'Angelo d'Alife264710/1810Piedimonte MateseLoc.Vallata3910221/11/1851SerinoLoc. S.Lucia, Troiani146481811Arienzo1561031851Padula256491811Santa Maria a Vico1561041851Volturara Irpina2565021/12/1812PositanoParlati Mt.153110528/10/1852Solofra25, 6, 4155130–31/07/1814Bracigliano1110605/01/1853Vietri sul MareBonea catchment.225204–19/12/1814Sala ConsilinaVairo, Marroncelli and151010720/03/1853Volturara Irpina26; 9Poerio street531814Piedimonte Matese3610813/09/1857Piedimonte MateseLoc. Vallata34, 590*6; 95412/11/1817Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1210913/09/1857Sant'Angelo d'AlifeLoc. S. Bartolomeo and S. Maria24, 590*6; 95512/11/1817SalernoIrno catchment321101857Padula256
V = number
of victims (*= total number of victims per event on the same date);
R = references (see Table 2).
Continued.
11113/06/1858Sala ConsilinaIndipendenza, Vairo, A.Da Brescia, U. Bossiand C. Battista streets24, 1, 51810; 616224/10/1910Barano d'IschiaLoc. Casabona14, 511; 21121859Padula24, 5616324–25/10/1910Boscotrecase14; 211308/1866MaioriLoc. Cetraro, road to Tramonti, Regina Majorcatchment11, 216424/10/1910Casamicciola14, 5611; 211411/11/1866Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2216524–25/10/1910Cercola14; 211516/03/1867Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2216624–25/10/1910ErcolanoLoc. Resina14; 211610/10/1867Padula24, 5616724/10/1910Forio d'IschiaLoc. Monterone14, 512; 211701/04/1875Conca dei Marini1216824/10/1910Furore1531181876Padula24, 5616924/10/1910Ischia153; 211901/02/1878Conca dei Marini1217024/10/1910Lacco Ameno14, 511; 212001/02/1878SalernoIrno catchment3217124/10/1910MaioriLoc. Erchie, S.Nicola and Sovarano35, 4243; 15; 112117/11/1880Arienzo1917224/10/1910Minori2543; 11221881Padula24, 5617324–25/10/1910Pollena Trocchia141231883Padula24, 5617424/10/1910PorticiGiordano street14; 212405/02/1885AmalfiCanneto catchment(now Grevone)1217524/10/1910Ravello16, 53; 11251891TramontiRegina Major catchment1217624/10/1910SalernoFusandola stream153; 21261896BaronissiIrno catchment1217724–25/10/1910San Sebastiano al Vesuvio14; 21271896BraciglianoPicentino, Fuorni andIrno catchment1217824–25/10/1910Sant'Anastasia141281896Castiglione del GenovesiPicentino catchment1217924/10/1910ScalaLoc. Acquabona123; 11291896Conca dei MariniPicentino, Fuorni andIrno catchment1218024/10/1910Serrara Fontana15111301896SalernoIrno catchment3218124–25/10/1910Somma Vesuviana1413107/10/1899Calabritto14, 3, 5100*1218224/10/1910Vietri sul Mareloc. Molina2513; 1; 213207/10/1899Caposele14, 3, 5100*1218302/01/1911CetaraCetus catchment1213307/10/1899Castiglione del Genovesi14, 3, 5100*1218402/01/1911Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2213407/10/1899Cava de' Tirreni14, 3, 5100*1218521/09/1911Boscoreale2413507/10/1899Curticelle14, 3, 5100*1218621/09/1911ErcolanoLoc. Resina (Pugliano, Mare, Cortile, Trentola streets)16413607/10/1899Giffoni sei Casali24, 3, 5100*1218721/09/1911Ottaviano1413707/10/1899Giffoni Valle PianaSecco stream and Colauro street3431218821/09/1911Portici1413807/10/1899Montecorvino Pugliano14, 3, 5100*1218921/09/1911San Giuseppe Vesuviano1513907/10/1899Montecorvino Rovella14, 3, 5100*1219021/09/1911Torre del GrecoXX Settembre,Nazionale, Fiorilloand Umberto streets1414007/10/1899Quaglietta4, 3, 5100*1219103/01/1915MinoriRegina Minorcatchment2214107/10/1899SalernoIrno catchment andRafastia torrent34, 3, 5100*12, 5; 11921915Alife2614207/10/1899Vietri sul MareMolina di Vietri24, 3, 5512, 219306/11/1916Vietri sul MareBonea catchment221431900Padula24, 5619421/09/1921San Giuseppe Vesuviano1414402/1903Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2219525/10/1921Ercolano141451903Cervinara25119625/10/1921Portici1414607/10/1904RavelloDragone catchment1219725/10/1921San Giorgio a Cremano1414817–18/05/1906Ercolano12419825/10/1921Torre del Greco1414901/06/1906Sant'Anastasia1419913/11/1921Furore1215001/06/1906Cercola1420026/03/1924Agerola1100*3; 815101/06/1906Pollena Trocchia1420126/03/1924AmalfiLoc. Vettica Minore,Baglio12, 5, 4603; 81521906Torre del GrecoCavallerizzi, XXSettembre and Purgatorio streets, Del Popolo square126420226/03/1924Atrani2100*3; 815304/01/1907Ercolano1420326/03/1924Cetara1100*115424–25/10/1908Ercolano12420426/03/1924Minori2100*3; 815524–25/10/1908Portici1420526/03/1924Positano1100*3; 815624–25/10/1908San Giorgio a Cremano1420626/03/1924PraianoLoc. Marina di Praiano14183; 8; 1; 215724–25/10/1908Torre del Greco1420726/03/1924Vietri sul MareBonea and ReginaMajor catchments24100*515804/10/1909Boscotrecase1420826/03/1924Vietri sul Mare23; 816023/10/1910CetaraCetus catchment, Loc.Utrio and Cappetta,Federico street15, 4200*15; 3; 1; 2; 1320901/10/1927Sala Consilina24, 5616124/10/1910Amalfi1523; 121001/11/1927Sala ConsilinaUmberto I square24, 510
V = number
of victims (*= total number of victims per event on the same date);
R = references (see Table 2).
Continued.
21121/09/1929Giffoni Valle PianaPicentino catchment3227212/11/1961Torre del Greco12421221/09/1929Montecorvino Rovella1227327/06/1962San Giuseppe Vesuviano1521321/09/1929Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2227416/02/1963Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1221431/08/1931Castellammare di S.11127516/02/1963PellezzanoIrno catchment1221501/03/1935Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1227616/02/1963Petina1221601/03/1935Conca dei Marini1227716/02/1963Positano1221701/03/1935MinoriRegina Minor catchment2227816/02/1963Sala Consilina24, 5621801/03/1935RavelloDragone catchment1227916/02/1963TramontiRegina Major catchment1221901/03/1935TramontiRegina Major catchment1228018/02/1963Padula24, 5622021/08/1935Castellammare di S.1128121/02/1963PositanoLoc. Trara Genoino112211935Giffoni Valle Piana3128213/05/1963Sant'Anastasia1422214/09/1939AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1228330/05/1963Torre del Greco1522314/09/1939Conca dei MariniCanneto1228425/09/1963Agerola1222414/09/1939MaioriRegina Major catchment3228525/09/1963Cava de' Tirreni1222501/06/1941Arienzo1928625/09/1963CetaraCetus catchment1222618/06/1944MinoriRegina Minor catchment2228725/09/1963Minori2222702/10/1945MinoriRegina Minor catchment2228825/09/1963PellezzanoIrno catchment1222802/03/1947MinoriRegina Minor catchment2228907/10/1963AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1222930/06/1947Sala ConsilinaUmberto I square24, 519; 1029007/10/1963CetaraCetus catchment1223025/10/1947MinoriRegina Minor catchment2229107/10/1963MaioriRegina Major catchment3223123/05/1948MinoriRegina Minor catchment2229207/10/1963MinoriRegina Minor catchment2223226/07/1948Somma Vesuviana14429307/10/1963Salerno123305/09/1948MinoriRegina Minor catchment2229416/12/1963PellezzanoIrno catchment1223402/10/1948AlifeLoc. S.Michele25629516/12/1963TramontiRegina Major catchment1223528/10/1948MinoriRegina Minor catchment2229613/01/1965Torre del Greco1523601/10/1949Vietri sul MareBonea catchment2229706/04/1966Torre Annunziata1523714/08/1950Somma Vesuviana1429825/10/1966Castiglione del Genovesi113; 823802/09/1950Somma Vesuviana1429925/10/1966Giffoni sei CasaliMonna Mt.227; 123925/12/1950Castellammare di S.Loc. Pozzano1130026/10/1966Alife2624021/01/1951MinoriRegina Minor catchment2230126/10/1966Baronissi1324109/03/1951Castellammare di S.Loc. Pozzano1130226/10/1966Cava de' Tirreni1324209/11/1951Giffoni Valle PianaPicentino catchment3230326/10/1966Piedimonte MateseLoc. Vallata3624309/11/1951Montecorvino Rovella1230426/10/1966Salerno324411/09/1953Agerola123051966Ravello1124511/09/1953RavelloDragone catchment1230609/01/1968Salerno52461953RavelloEastern side of Colonna Mt.1130717/12/1968Padula24, 5624725/10/1954AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)2330819/12/1968AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1224825/10/1954Atrani2330919/12/1968TramontiRegina Major catchment1224925/10/1954Cava de' TirreniLoc. Alessia, Marini and Castagneto1313; 1, 183101968Alife2625025/10/1954Maiori33; 1, 1831115/03/1969Agerola1125125/10/1954Minori223; 1, 1831215/03/1969Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1225225/10/1954Positano1331317/09/1969Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1225325/10/1954PraianoLoc. Vettica Maggiore1331422/09/1969San Giorgio a Cremano1125425/10/1954SalernoLoc. Fratte, and Canalone36, 4, 5205*3; 5; 183151969Arpaia1525525/10/1954Tramonti153; 8; 2; 2231608/04/1970Salerno52125625/10/1954Vietri sul MareLoc. Di Molina and Marina23, 1831701/10/1970Portici11425705/11/1954Ercolano1431801/10/1970Torre Annunziata11425804/02/1955San Sebastiano al Vesuvio1531901/10/1970Torre del Greco1425911/09/1955Agerola1232002/10/1970AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1226011/09/1955PellezzanoIrno catchment1232102/10/1970BaronissiIrno catchment1226111/09/1955TramontiRegina Major catchment1232202/10/1970Minori2226210/01/1956San Giuseppe Vesuviano13432302/10/1970PellezzanoIrno catchment1226318/11/1956Arpaia1632409/12/1970Forio d'IschiaLoc. Montevergine1126421/01/1957Sant'Anastasia1532525/12/1970AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1226522/10/1957Cava de' Tirreni1232625/12/1970BaronissiIrno catchment1226622/10/1957MinoriRegina Minor catchment2232725/12/1970MinoriRegina Minor catchment2226722/10/1957TramontiRegina Major catchment1232825/12/1970PellezzanoIrno catchment1226830/12/1957Cercola1243291970Arienzo1626919/09/1960Ercolano11433019/01/1971Torre del Greco1527019/09/1960Portici1433121/02/1971Castellammare di S.15127107/07/1961Torre del Greco11433215/10/1971Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment12
V = number
of victims (*= total number of victims per event on the same date);
R = references (see Table 2).
Continued.
33315/10/1971TramontiRegina Major catchment1239410/11/1987Positano1233423/11/1971AmalfiCanneto catchment(now Grevone)1239510/11/1987Ravello1233523/11/1971MinoriRegina Minorcatchment2239610/11/1987TramontiRegina Major catchment1233606/03/1972Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1239713/11/1997Ercolano433706/03/1972TramontiRegina Major catchment1239815/09/1988BaronissiIrno catchment1233827/07/1972Piedimonte MateseLoc. Vallata34639915/09/1988PellezzanoIrno catchment1233921/10/1972Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1240015/09/1988TramontiRegina Major catchment1234021/10/1972TramontiRegina Major catchment1240115/07/1991Torre del GrecoSanta Croce square1434121/11/1972BaronissiIrno catch1240226/03/1992Torre del Grecoport1434221/11/1972Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1240318/04/1992Portici1434321/11/1972PellezzanoIrno catchment1240424/06/1992PellezzanoLoc.Cologna1134402/01/1973AmalfiCanneto catchment (now Grevone)1240505/08/1992Torre del Greco1434502/01/1973Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1240625/09/1992Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1234602/01/1973MaioriRegina Major catchment3240725/09/1992TramontiRegina Major catchment1234702/01/1973MinoriRegina Minor catchment2240803–04/10/1992Torre del GrecoPiazza Palomba1434802/01/1973TramontiRegina Major catchment1240904/10/1992BaronissiIrno catchment1234919/09/1973Torre del Greco12441004/10/1992Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment123501973BaianoLoc. Lagno di Trulo15141120/08/1993SerinoLoc. Ribottoli, Puzzillo11635125/09/1974Arienzo14641220/08/1993SolofraLoc. Puzzillo23118; 5; 135225/09/1974Arpaia14641308/12/1993Cava de' TirreniLoc. Rotolo1135325/09/1974Forchia14641420/12/1993Padula24, 5935403/10/1974Arienzo1641526/12/1993Sala Consilina24, 5635503/10/1974Sant'Angelo d'Alife2641622/08/1996Massa di SommaPaparo street1435605/10/1974Arienzo1641722/08/1996San Gennaro Vesuviano1435728/06/1976SalernoIrno catchment3141822/08/1996San Giorgio a CremanoMatteotti street1435813/10/1976Torre del Greco11441922/08/1996Torre del GrecoPort, XX Settembre street1435929/10/1979Torre del GrecoCavallo street12442020/09/1996Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1236012/10/1980Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1242120/09/1996Giffoni sei CasaliPicentino catchment3236112/10/1980MaioriRegina Major catchment3242220/09/1996TramontiRegina Major catchment1236212/10/1980MinoriRegina Minor catchment2242326/11/1996Padula25636312/10/1980TramontiRegina Major catchment1242426/11/1996Sala Consilina25636415/10/1980Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1242509–10/01/1997Casamicciolaloc. Montagnone, Molara, Cantoni, Tresta,Cognola, Campomanno; La Pera, Ervaniello and Puzzillo quarries, Mt. Taburno,11136501/06/1981Forio d'IschiaPaola Poli restaurant14542609/01/1997Castellammare di S.14536619/12/1982Torre del GrecoCavallo street12442709/01/1997CorbaraChiunzi pass1536715/08/1983Barano d'IschiaScura and Olmitelloquarries11542809–10/01/1997Lacco AmenoCito Mt.11136830–31/10/1985ErcolanoPalmieri street1442910/01/1997Castellammare di S.Loc. Pozzano14, 51436930–31/10/1985OttavianoCemetery1443010/01/1997Cava de' TirreniCinque street,SS18, Loc. Avvocatella1137030–31/10/1985PorticiRailway1443110/01/1997San Cipriano PicentinoLoc. Campigliano1137130–31/10/1985San Gennaro Vesuviano1443210/01/1997San Giuseppe Vesuviano1437230–31/10/1985Torre del GrecoCavallo street1443310/01/1997Vietri sul MareLoc. Guarno and Tresaro2137302/11/1985ErcolanoPalmieri street1443421/08/1997Sant'Anastasia1437416-17/11/1985Portici1443521/08/1997Somma Vesuviana1437516–17/11/1985San Giorgio a CremanoTufarelli street1443613/11/1997BoscorealeDiaz street1437616–17/11/1985Torre del GrecoCavallo, Novesca,Sant'Elena streets1443713/11/1997Cercola1437717/11/1985Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1243813/11/1997San Sebastiano al Vesuvio1437817/11/1985DurazzanoLongano Mt.1143913/11/1997Somma Vesuviana1437917/11/1985MaioriRegina Major catchment3244013/11/1997Torre del GrecoBeneduce street1438017/11/1985Summonte16, 5144105/05/1998Avella3738117/11/1985TramontiRegina Major catchment1244205/05/1998Montoro11138201/02/1986Castellammare di S.Aragonese Castel1544324–25/7/1999CasamicciolaLoc. Montagnone, Cantoni1511;38301/02/1986Forio d'Ischia1544424–25/7/1999Lacco AmenoErvaniello quarry, La Rita51538413/03/1986Cava de' TirreniLoc. Molina1244515/12/1999Cervinara255; 638513/03/1986PellezzanoIrno catchment1244619/11/2000Torre del GrecoLoc. Santa Maria La Bruna1438620/07/1986Roccarainola1644727/12/2000ErcolanoCaprile street1438724/11/1986Cava de' TirreniCavaiola catchment1244822/08/2001Santa Maria a Vico1638824/11/1986TramontiRegina Major catchment1244922/08/2001Sant'Angelo d'Alife24, 6, 51638922/02/1987Barano d'Ischia1645015/09/2001Barano d'IschiaOlmitello quarry161539016/10/1987BaronissiIrno catchment1245115/09/2001CasamicciolaLoc. La Rita1421139116/10/1987PellezzanoIrno catchment1245222/06/2002Raviscanina119; 639209/11/1987Castellammare di S.11845326/07/2002Caposele16, 41839310/11/1987MinoriRegina Minorcatchment2245428/08/2002Barano d'IschiaScura quarry115
V = number
of victims (*= total number of victims per event on the same date);
R = references (see Table 2).
Continued.
45510/09/2002Barano d'IschiaScura and Petrella quarries11545623–24/09/2002Barano d'IschiaOlmitello quarry1641545709/09/2003Castellammare di S.Castel11845820/04/2004Cava de' TirreniLoc. Badia and Sant'Arcangelo15, 41845928/09/2007MontoroLoc. Frazione Chiusa and Aterrana15, 41846028/09/2007Volturara IrpinaLoc. Candragone24, 318; 646110/11/2009CasamicciolaBagni square14, 511246230/07/2010Somma Vesuviana1446331/07/2010Giffoni sei CasaliPrepezzano stream, Loc. Madonna del Carmine35846409/09/2010Atrani25, 4, 111846507/10/2011BuccinoLoc. Teglia25, 417; 1846607/10/2011San Gregorio MagnoLoc. Matruro, Teglia351846721/10/2011Pollena Trocchia11446819/06/2014ArienzoPinazzola street15, 4, 31846919/06/2014TufinoLoc. Icap, Vignola and Ferone, Turati street141847001/09/2014SolofraLoc. Madonna della Neve, Santa Lucia25, 4.1847101/09/2014Volturara IrpinaRimembranza street25, 41847211/09/2014Castellammare di S.Loc. Quisisana151847325/02/2015Barano d'IschiaLoc. Olmitello111847419/09/1943QuadrelleLoc. Mugnano-Quadrelle21847509/09/1973QuadrelleLoc. Mugnano-Quadrelle21847620/08/1997QuadrelleLoc. Mugnano-Quadrelle21847813/11/1997QuadrelleLoc. Mugnano-Quadrelle218
V = number
of victims (*= total number of victims per event on the same date);
R = references (see Table 2).
Geomorphological features of the catchments involved
The SMCs in Campania most severely affected by
flash floods in recent decades are mainly located in carbonate and volcanic
settings (Palma et al., 2009; Santangelo et al., 2012; Santo et al., 2012,
2015; Alessio et al., 2013). Regarding their geographical location, they may
have both an inland outlet (generally represented by a fan or by a
well-defined foothill area; Santangelo et al., 2012) or a coastal outlet,
represented by a fan delta (Esposito et al., 2011; Santo et al., 2012). They
also show similar morphometric conditions (Santangelo et al., 2012; Alessio
et al., 2013), which can be summed up as follows:
limited catchment area (from a few km2 to 10 km2)
high relief energy (from hundreds of meters up to 1000 m)
high slope gradient (generally greater than 35∘)
high mean gradient of feeder channel (greater than 15∘)
low concentration time (from 30 min to a few hours).
As the sediments captured by the stream and transported down valley
generally come from the bed and banks of the torrent, we tried to
discriminate among different catchment types, based on the following
parameters:
bedrock of the catchment (carbonate/volcanic);
presence/absence of detrital cover and, if present, its origin
(weathered bedrock, soil, pyroclastic cover, etc.);
type of outlet zone (alluvial fan or fan delta in coastal area).
Thus the collected events were eventually grouped into the following five classes:
carbonate catchment with pyroclastic cover
carbonate catchment without pyroclastic cover
carbonate catchment with pyroclastic cover and outlet to the sea
volcanic catchment
volcanic catchment with outlet to the sea.
References used in Table 1 (R column).
ReferencesNo.Migale and Milone (1998)1Porfido et al. (2013)2Esposito et al. (2011)3Alessio et al. (2013)4Vallario (2001)5Santangelo et al. (2012)6Di Crescenzo and Santo (2005)7Esposito and Galli (2011)8Scorpio (2011)9Santangelo et al. (2011)10Santo et al. (2012)11Esposito et al. (2011)12ISPRA-Servizio Geologico d'Italia (2006)13Calcaterra and Santo (2004)14Del Prete and Mele (2006)15Di Crescenzo et al. (2013)16Chirico et al. (2012)17Newspapers18
Number (a) and monthly distribution (b) of flash
floods events for the different classes of catchments. Catchment class key:
(1) carbonate catchment with pyroclastic cover; (2) carbonate catchment
without pyroclastic cover; (3) carbonate catchment with pyroclastic cover and
outlet to the sea; (4) volcanic catchment; (5) volcanic catchment with outlet
to the sea.
Different grain size deposits for the different catchment classes:
(a) Solopaca 2015, carbonate gravels and blocks (class 2);
(b) Atrani 2010, gravel and sands (classes 1 and 3);
(c) Casamicciola 2009: sands, silt and clay (classes 4 and 5).
The information thereby gathered may be useful to depict a regional scenario
on the spatial and temporal distribution of flash floods in Campania. The
oldest event occurred in 1540 in the town of Amalfi. The temporal
distribution of the events in the region (Fig. 5) reveals that most of the
municipalities have been affected by flash floods more than once during the
time period covered by the database. Although there are several catchments
with similar geological and geomorphological characteristics, many villages
have no event recorded, probably related to the absence of inhabited areas.
More than 60 % of the events have occurred during the last 50 years, a
finding which is probably related to the greater availability of information
sources in recent times, the numerous scientific studies carried out in the
last few decades and the growing attention to geological hazards. Five
degrees of temporal accuracy were used to classify the different levels of
knowledge for time occurrence of the events. Events for which only the year
of occurrence is known have a low accuracy, while a high accuracy is assigned
when hour, day, month, and year of occurrence are known. The histogram in
Fig. 6 indicates that most of the events in question have a medium-to-high
accuracy, meaning that day, month, and year of occurrence are known. The
accuracy degree declines, as expected, for the oldest events.
Distribution of victims recorded in the territory.
Typical examples of damage caused by alluvial events:
(a) Casamicciola, 10 November 2009; (b) Buccino-Teglia,
7 October 2011; (c) Arienzo, 6 June 2014; (d) Solofra,
1 September 2014.
Regarding the geomorphological features of the catchments involved, Fig. 9
shows the regional distribution of events, classified according to the five
classes mentioned above. Most of the events took place in carbonate
catchments with pyroclastic cover, both with and without an outlet to the sea
(Figs. 9 and 10a). The widespread presence of carbonate catchments, as well
as the high urbanization, affected the information source: as mentioned
above, intense urbanization typically means greater availability of data, due
to higher attention towards the damage generated by natural hazards.
Distinguishing between different catchment types is important in order to
discern the different bed and bank materials available which the flow could
entrap and transport down valley. In a typical carbonate catchment the surge
could generally take gravels without or with a low content of matrix
(Fig. 11a); in carbonate catchments with pyroclastic cover, however, medium and coarse gravels with a high percentage of matrix are expected
to be available (Fig. 11b). Further, in pure volcanic catchments, due to
greater erodibility of the material, mainly silts and clays can be found
(Fig. 11c). The mean time period of occurrence of the events in each
catchment type ranges from 3 to 35 years. Carbonate catchments with
pyroclastic cover, both with and without an outlet to the sea, show a mean
time period of occurrence of 6 years, which becomes 10 years for carbonate
catchments without pyroclastic cover. Regarding the volcanic catchments,
which in general present a lower number of events, the mean time period of
occurrence is 35 years at Ischia and 3 years for the area surrounding
Mt. Somma–Vesuvius.
The monthly distribution of flash flood events is quite variable in the
different types of catchments. Figure 10b shows that all the events peak in
October, with autumn being the season with the highest frequency. After the
dry period, heavy rainfall can generate sudden high discharge, and runoff
can carry downstream sediments accumulating as a result of the erosion
processes. Locally, this could also be related to occurrence of wildfires
during the dry season (Calcaterra et al., 2007a, b).
On the basis of the collected data, in the carbonate catchments with
pyroclastic cover the lowest number of events is recorded in April, or
generally during the spring, if there is an outlet to the sea. In the
carbonate catchments without cover during spring (March–May) there are no
events, and the lowest number of alluvial events is in January. In volcanic
catchments, February and March are the months with the smallest number of
events. For catchments with an outlet to the sea, during the spring
(March–May) no event was recorded, and November–December are the months with
the fewest events.
Regarding damage to people, in most cases the reported information is very
generic, or in other cases the source provides the total number of victims
per event but not for the individual municipalities. A precise estimate of
the number of victims is thus not easy. In some cases divergences exist in
the numbers of casualties reported by different sources for the same event.
The differences could be due to several reasons, including the fact that the
exact number is typically available only at the end of the search and rescue
operations, from a few days to weeks after the event. During this period,
newspapers and even official reports may provide different and changing data
(Salvati et al., 2010). Typically, information sources mainly document the
most severe events in terms of the number of deaths and damage caused.
About 18 % of the events in the database caused at least one victim.
Figure 12 depicts their distribution in the region. The most dangerous events
hit the province of Salerno, affecting the carbonate catchments with
pyroclastic cover, both with and without an outlet to the sea. This means
that carbonate catchments with pyroclastic cover (class 1) are the most
hazardous. All the events with more than 100 victims took place in October;
further, for the most damaging events the total number of deaths was also
caused by landslides. Hence it is not easy to evaluate the victims caused
only by flash flood events in small catchments. Further, attribution of the
number of casualties to each municipality was very difficult, since the
source typically provides the total number of victims per event, not
distinguishing the different villages. This applies, for instance, to the
events in 1581 (700–1000 victims), in 1899 (approximately 100 victims), in
1924 (approximately 100 victims), and in 1910 (over 200 victims) which were
the most devastating in recorded history.
The mean time period of occurrence for the events with more or less than
100 victims is very different: 62 years for the events with more than
100 victims and only 3 years for all the other events.
Taking into account the total number of events, the database contains few
cases with injured, homeless and missing people. With regard to the
homeless, for instance, the number is too small when compared with the
numbers of events that caused complete destruction of the buildings. This
suggests that the documented data in some ways underestimate reality.
The flash floods documented caused severe social damage, primarily involving
buildings, lifelines and infrastructures. In particular, roads and private
buildings were the most severely affected categories. In this regard, the
most dangerous catchment types are carbonate catchments with and without
pyroclastic cover. The damaged elements by each event are reported in
classes in the database. In Fig. 13 some examples of damage produced by
flash floods are shown.
Final remarks
Through an analysis of the existing literature, we focused on flash flood
events in Campania, a region that has repeatedly been affected by severe
flooding causing serious damage and fatalities. We collected temporal and
spatial information on about 500 flash floods, thus building the first
specific database concerning this type of geological hazard in the region.
For this purpose, a critical scrutiny of the existing literature was
performed to provide a degree of reliability for the collected information.
We also defined the accuracy related to the temporal information available,
and for most of the events accuracy proved to be medium to high, meaning
that day, month and year of occurrence of the single event are known.
In order to reconstruct flood scenarios, we classified different catchment
types on the basis of the main geological (bedrock lithology and
presence/absence of detrital cover) and geomorphological parameters (type of
outlet zone). This differentiation may be useful to understand the type of
transported bed load (coarse vs. fine-grained) and to characterize the
deposition area.
We also collected information about damage to people and society, which
occurred as a consequence of flash floods. Most of the events took place in
carbonate catchments with pyroclastic cover, both with and without an outlet
to the sea. Among the 86 municipalities that were damaged by torrential
flooding, 16 recorded more than 10 events. In Campania the mean occurrence
interval of floods is very low, ranging from a few years for damage to
buildings and infrastructures up to some decades in the case of events with
victims. The widespread presence of carbonate catchments in the region and
the intense urbanization of the area affected the information sources, and
these represent the main weaknesses of the historical documents. Although the
volcanic areas in Campania are densely populated, the alluvial events in
carbonate catchments with pyroclastic cover caused more damage to people and
society than those occurring in volcanic catchments. The study also showed
that a significant number of catchments were affected by floods with high
mean time period of occurrence of the events. The loss of historical memories
of these events certainly lies at the origin of an increase in the risk
conditions.
Such a database may be useful in different ways for land use and civil
protection planning. First of all, it may help to locate the areas more
susceptible to flash floods all over the region. Secondly, it may facilitate
local authorities in charge of land management to select sites where
monitoring procedures and/or prevention and mitigation works need to be
adopted. In this perspective the main users of the database will be local
administrators and the civil protection agency.
Data availability
The database was built for the author's PhD project; we have chosen to make it
public with this publication.
Any additional information about data sets can be provided by the authors.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, that have helped us to improve the
manuscript.Edited by: K. Schröter Reviewed by: five anonymous
referees
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